Consciousness, Contemplation, and Transformation # An Interdisciplinary Exploration of Boundless Awareness and Formless States in Contemplative Traditions ## Introduction The exploration of consciousness, particularly its potential for profound transformation and expansion beyond ordinary limits, represents an enduring thread in human history. Across diverse cultures and epochs, contemplative traditions have developed sophisticated methodologies aimed at investigating the nature of mind and cultivating states of awareness characterized by boundlessness, unity, and deep peace.1 These advanced states, often described using terms like "infinite space," "infinite consciousness," "nothingness," or "union," challenge conventional understandings of self and reality. This report seeks to provide a rigorous, interdisciplinary synthesis of current knowledge concerning these profound subjective shifts, drawing upon philosophical inquiry, comparative mysticism, phenomenology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and transpersonal psychology. The significance of studying these states extends beyond historical or philosophical curiosity. As contemplative practices, particularly mindfulness, are increasingly integrated into secular domains such as healthcare, education, and organizational settings 1, a deeper, more nuanced understanding of the full spectrum of contemplative development, including its advanced stages and transformative effects, becomes crucial. Furthermore, investigating these boundary states of consciousness holds profound implications for understanding the fundamental nature of the mind, the plasticity of human experience, and the upper reaches of human potential for well-being and flourishing.2 This endeavor is inherently complex, navigating the challenges of studying highly subjective, often ineffable experiences across varied cultural, linguistic, and philosophical landscapes.12 Therefore, this report adopts an explicitly interdisciplinary approach, integrating insights from multiple fields to construct a more comprehensive picture. It will begin by examining the fundamental capacities of consciousness that might enable such experiences and compare the descriptions of boundless states across traditions. It will then delve into the phenomenology of formless states like "nothingness," exploring the limitations of language in articulating them. Subsequently, the report will investigate the meditative pathways and cognitive mechanisms involved in reaching these states, followed by an exploration of contemporary scientific models (cognitive, neural, theoretical) attempting to explain these subjective shifts. Finally, it will synthesize the reported transformative outcomes, discuss methodological considerations for research in this area, and offer concluding thoughts on the implications for understanding consciousness and human potential. ## I. The Phenomenon of Boundless Awareness ### A. Foundations in Consciousness: Exploring Capacities for Self-Transcendence and Unity The existence of experiences characterized by boundlessness and unity raises fundamental questions about the inherent capacities of human consciousness. Evidence suggests that consciousness is not rigidly fixed within the confines of the everyday ego but possesses latent potentials that can be accessed, either spontaneously or through dedicated training. Central to this potential is the capacity for self-awareness, particularly the development of meta-awareness—the ability to be aware of one's own awareness and mental processes without being caught up in them.25 This capacity, cultivated systematically through mindfulness practices, allows individuals to observe the arising and passing of thoughts, feelings, and sensations, forming a crucial foundation for recognizing and potentially moving beyond habitual modes of self-processing.25 This cultivated meta-awareness appears intrinsically linked to the potential for self-transcendence. Defined variously as understanding oneself as part of something greater than the individual self 28, or as a dissolution, deconstruction, or transcendence of the egoic self 29, self-transcendence is a recurring theme in both contemplative literature and psychological frameworks. The Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Self-Transcendence (S-ART) framework explicitly posits that self-transcendence emerges from the cultivation of self-awareness and the subsequent development of self-regulation, leading to outcomes like increased prosociality and non-attachment to rigid self-concepts.25 Positive psychology similarly links self-transcendence to enhanced well-being, a sense of meaning, purpose, and virtuous character.28 Furthermore, transpersonal psychology explores developmental stages that extend beyond the conventional ego, involving experiences of profound connectedness and the dissolution of personal boundaries.6 The S-ART framework proposes several underlying neurocognitive mechanisms that may support these shifts in self-experience, including intention and motivation, attention regulation, emotion regulation, the extinction and reconsolidation of habitual patterns, the cultivation of prosocial tendencies, non-attachment, and decentering (recognizing thoughts as mental events).25 These mechanisms, strengthened through intentional mental training, are thought to modulate the brain networks involved in self-processing and reduce inherent biases.25 The existence of spontaneous 'awakening experiences' further supports the idea of latent capacities within consciousness. These powerful, often temporary, moments are commonly characterized by a profound sense of unity (ego dissolution, oneness), intense positive emotions (boundless love, bliss, awe), remarkable clarity or insight into existence, and a feeling of surrender or acceptance.29 Such experiences provide glimpses into states resembling those cultivated through long-term practice and often involve a powerful sense of self-transcendence.29 The fact that such profound shifts can occur spontaneously, alongside the evidence that similar states can be cultivated through rigorous training 25, suggests a dynamic interplay between the inherent potential of consciousness and the methods used to refine it. Consciousness may possess dormant capacities for boundless awareness and unity, which can either surface unexpectedly or be systematically developed through contemplative disciplines. This perspective challenges models of consciousness as static or strictly limited by everyday egoic functioning. ### B. Recurring Descriptions Across Traditions: Infinite Space, Infinite Consciousness, and Oneness When examining descriptions of advanced contemplative states across different traditions, a fascinating pattern emerges. Despite significant differences in philosophical frameworks, terminology, and ultimate interpretations – a point central to the ongoing debate between perennialist (emphasizing universal core experiences) and constructivist (emphasizing culturally shaped experiences) perspectives 33 – there are striking phenomenological recurrences. In Theravada Buddhism, the path of concentration can lead beyond the four material jhānas (states of absorption characterized by progressively refined levels of calm, bliss, and one-pointedness) into the four formless jhānas or arūpajhānas.34 This progression involves a deliberate "surpassing" or "abandoning" of the previous, coarser state.36 The sequence unfolds as follows: 1. The Base of Infinite Space: Attained by transcending all perceptions of form and sensory impact, the meditator focuses on and becomes aware of "space is infinite".34 2. The Base of Infinite Consciousness: Attained by transcending the base of infinite space, the meditator focuses on and becomes aware that "consciousness is infinite".34 3. The Base of Nothingness: Attained by transcending infinite consciousness, the meditator focuses on and becomes aware that "there is nothing".34 4. The Base of Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception: The subtlest state, attained by transcending nothingness, defying simple description.34 This progression represents a systematic withdrawal from differentiated objects of awareness towards increasingly subtle and abstract fields, ultimately described as a progressive cessation of awareness of specific things.36 In the Yogic tradition, particularly as outlined in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, the culmination of the eight-limbed path is Samadhi, a state of profound meditative absorption.30 This state is characterized by the transcendence of the individual self and a merging with universal consciousness, leading to experiences of deep tranquility, bliss, clarity, unification, and non-dual awareness.30 Within Samadhi, distinctions are made, such as between Samprajnata Samadhi (absorption with cognitive content, albeit subtle) and Asamprajnata or Nirbija Samadhi (objectless, seedless absorption involving the cessation of thought and perception).31 These latter states, described as experiences of oneness and boundless compassion beyond the ego 30, resonate strongly with the formless dimensions explored in Buddhism. Mystical traditions, both theistic and non-theistic, also describe experiences of profound unity and boundary dissolution.38 In Abrahamic faiths (Christianity, Sufism, Judaism), experiences of "union with God" (unio mystica) are often described, though classical mystics frequently emphasize communion, alignment of will, or "spiritual marriage" rather than a complete ontological merging.12 Metaphors like a drop of water in wine (Suso), iron in fire (Ruysbroeck), or the soul absorbing God (Teresa of Avila) are used to convey this intimacy.12 The Cloud of Unknowing, a key text in Christian mysticism, emphasizes attaining this union through love and a state of "unknowing," beyond intellectual grasp.39 Non-theistic traditions, like Advaita Vedanta, speak of realizing the identity of the individual self (Atman) with the ultimate reality (Brahman).12 Mystical experiences are often categorized as extrovertive (experiencing unity overlaid onto sensory perception, e.g., cosmic consciousness) or introvertive (awareness devoid of sensory input, leading to experiences of pure consciousness or nothingness).12 Within Sufism, the concepts of Fanāʾ (annihilation) and Baqāʾ (subsistence) are central.41 Fanāʾ refers to the passing away or annihilation of the individual self (ego, nafs) in the overwhelming presence of God.41 This is often described as "dying before one dies".42 It is followed by Baqāʾ, a state where the self returns or subsists, but is now transformed, purified, and lives in conscious harmony with the Divine, retaining awareness of both self and God.41 This dynamic is related to states of spiritual intoxication (sukr, associated with Fanāʾ) and subsequent sobriety (ṣaḥw, associated with Baqāʾ).41 Synthesizing across these diverse traditions, several common themes emerge regarding advanced states: - A dissolution, transcendence, or fundamental alteration of the ordinary, ego-bound sense of self.12 - An experience of unity, oneness, or interconnectedness, although the nature of this unity is interpreted differently (e.g., with God, with universal consciousness, with all existence, or as emptiness).38 - Profound positive affective states, such as bliss, peace, boundless love, joy, or equanimity.29 - Altered perception of space, time, and boundaries, often described as boundless or infinite.34 - A sense that these experiences occur beyond ordinary conceptual thought and are difficult to articulate (ineffability).12 However, key differences also exist, primarily in the interpretive frameworks applied: - The nature of the ultimate reality encountered (personal God vs. impersonal Absolute/Brahman vs. Emptiness/Nirvana). - The relative emphasis on love and devotion versus insight and wisdom as the primary path or quality of the experience.12 - The specific sequential stages or dynamic processes described (e.g., the linear progression of Jhanas vs. the cyclical dynamic of Fana/Baqa).36 - The ultimate goal (e.g., liberation from suffering, eternal union with God, realization of true nature). The presence of both striking similarities in phenomenological descriptions (altered self, unity, boundlessness, peace) and significant differences in conceptual interpretation across traditions lends credence to the idea that there may be a core experiential territory accessible through these diverse paths. This territory involves fundamental shifts in the structure of awareness and self-perception. However, the way this territory is mapped, understood, and articulated is deeply shaped by the specific linguistic, cultural, and doctrinal lenses of each tradition.33 The variations might reflect different facets of a complex reality or different ways of navigating and making sense of profound alterations in subjective experience, rather than entirely disparate destinations. ## II. Navigating Formlessness: Emptiness, Nothingness, and Beyond As contemplative practice deepens, practitioners report encountering states characterized by increasing subtlety and a reduction of phenomenal content, often described using terms like "emptiness" or "nothingness." Analyzing these states phenomenologically, distinct from specific doctrinal interpretations, reveals nuances crucial for understanding the landscape of advanced consciousness. ### A. Phenomenology of "Nothingness": Cessation of Content vs. Shift in Awareness The term "nothingness" in contemplative contexts is ambiguous and can refer to several distinct experiences.44 A crucial distinction, drawn particularly from Buddhist psychology and phenomenology, separates "emptiness" (śūnyatā) as "no-thingness" from "cessation" (nirodha) as literal "nothingness".44 Emptiness (Śūnyatā / No-thingness): Phenomenologically, emptiness refers not to a void, but to the perception or insight that phenomena (including the self) lack inherent, independent existence.44 It is the realization of the interdependent, constructed, and impermanent nature of all experience – seeing things as "empty" of solid, separate self-nature. This insight is often cultivated through Vipassanā (insight) meditation, which involves investigating the characteristics of experience.44 It aligns with the Zen notion of "forgetting the self" 25 and contemporary cognitive ideas about deconstructing predictive self-models.27 Philosophically, Laycock argues that this Buddhist understanding of emptiness as relationality offers a more coherent account than Sartre's conception of consciousness as a substantial "nothingness".46 The experience is one of seeing through the apparent solidity of things, a shift in understanding rather than a complete absence of content. Cessation (Nirodha / Nothingness): Phenomenologically, cessation is described as a literal "gap," "cut," or interruption in the stream of consciousness.34 It is an absence of all perception, feeling, and awareness, including the sense of time and space.44 These events are typically brief, lasting moments or seconds, and are recognized retrospectively upon the "reboot" of consciousness.44 This re-emergence is often associated with profound insight and transformation. In Theravada Buddhism, cessation is linked to specific stages of insight known as path (magga) and fruition (phala).44 Applying these distinctions helps clarify other related states: - The Buddhist "Base of Nothingness" (7th Jhana): This state, achieved by transcending infinite consciousness and characterized by the awareness "there is nothing," appears phenomenologically distinct from cessation.34 The description implies an awareness of nothingness as a subtle object or field, rather than a complete absence of awareness (cessation).35 It represents a highly refined state of concentration focused on the absence of the previous object (infinite consciousness). - Sufi Fanāʾ: The "annihilation" of the self in Fanāʾ could be interpreted phenomenologically in different ways.41 Is it an experience of emptiness (the self dissolving into the perceived unity of the Divine)? Or is it closer to cessation (a temporary loss of individual self-awareness)? The subsequent stage of Baqāʾ, the "subsistence" or return of a transformed self that is aware of both itself and God 41, suggests a process involving a profound alteration or temporary suspension of ordinary self-awareness, potentially akin to a cessation followed by a transformative re-emergence, rather than a continuous state of emptiness where the self remains absent. - Mystical Nothingness/Ayin: Concepts like ayin (nothingness) in Kabbalah, understood not as a void but as a divine fullness beyond conceptual grasp 12, or Meister Eckhart's notion of emptying the mind of created things to be filled with God 12, point to a different kind of "nothingness." This is not an absence of content or an insight into lack of substance, but rather a state that transcends conceptual categories altogether, paradoxically described as both empty (of concepts/limits) and full (of divine reality). Therefore, phenomenologically, "nothingness" is not a single state but encompasses: (1) Emptiness: An insight into the lack of inherent existence of self and phenomena. (2) Cessation: A temporary interruption of conscious experience. (3) Focused Nothingness: Concentration on the absence of previous objects (e.g., 7th Jhana). (4) Dissolution/Union: The self dissolving into a perceived ultimate reality (e.g., Fanāʾ, unio mystica), which might involve elements of emptiness or temporary cessation. (5) Transcendent Fullness: A state beyond concepts described paradoxically as nothingness (e.g., Ayin, Eckhart). It becomes clear that "nothingness" can refer both to the specific content (or lack thereof) within awareness – such as the void perceived in the 7th Jhana or the absence during cessation – and to a fundamental process or insight concerning the nature of reality and the self – such as the understanding of emptiness or the process of dissolution in Fanāʾ. Recognizing this distinction between content and process/insight is vital for avoiding conflation when comparing descriptions across different contemplative traditions and first-person reports.44 ### B. Transcending Concepts: The Challenge of "Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception" and Linguistic Limits A defining characteristic often attributed to mystical and advanced contemplative experiences is ineffability – the sense that the experience fundamentally defies adequate description in language.18 While people do attempt to speak about these states, they frequently report that words fall short, cannot capture the essence, or fail to convey the full breadth and depth of what was experienced.20 William James considered ineffability a primary mark of mystical states, comparing them to feelings or sensory experiences that must be directly undergone to be understood.22 This linguistic limitation has given rise to apophatic approaches (from Greek apophasis, "denial" or "negation"), particularly prominent in mystical theology.21 Apophatic or negative theology attempts to speak about God or the ultimate reality not by stating what it is (kataphatic theology), but by stating what it is not.19 This approach stems from the conviction that the divine transcends all human concepts and categories, making positive descriptions inherently inadequate or misleading.19 The Cloud of Unknowing, for instance, insists that God cannot be grasped by thought but only reached through love in a state of "unknowing," actively forgetting created things and concepts.39 Similarly, Buddhist traditions emphasize the realization of emptiness or the state of cessation as being beyond conceptual fabrication.36 However, the notion of ineffability and the practice of apophaticism face significant philosophical challenges.19 The paradox of ineffability arises immediately: claiming something is ineffable is itself making a claim about it.19 Furthermore, how can one successfully refer to or identify something (like God) that is truly beyond all description or conceptualization?.19 If our concepts don't apply, how do we know what "God" refers to? Some argue that purely negative statements fail to convey positive content.19 Attempts to resolve these issues often involve distinguishing different types or levels of knowledge and language, suggesting that while ultimate reality might be ineffable in terms of fundamental concepts that "carve reality at the joints," it might still be possible to speak truthfully about it in non-fundamental or metaphorical ways.19 The Buddhist state of "neither perception nor non-perception" (the 8th Jhana, nevasaññānāsaññāyatana) serves as a quintessential example of an experience pushing the boundaries of conceptual thought and language.34 Arising from the transcendence of the "base of nothingness," it is described as the most subtle level of consciousness possible before cessation, a state so refined that it cannot accurately be characterized as either having perception or not having perception.35 It points towards a mode of awareness that inherently resists the binary logic embedded in our conceptual frameworks and linguistic structures. This suggests that the limits of language encountered when describing these states may not simply be a matter of insufficient vocabulary, but may reflect a fundamental mismatch between the nature of the experience and the structure of language itself. Language operates through concepts, distinctions, and subject-object relations. Advanced contemplative states, particularly formless ones, involve a progressive withdrawal from such conceptual processing and object-based awareness.36 Therefore, language may function differently in these contexts. Rather than providing direct, literal descriptions, it might serve as a pointer, using metaphor, paradox, negation (apophasis), and evocative imagery to guide attention or hint at the quality of an experience that lies beyond the conceptual net.12 Intriguingly, linguistic analysis of mystical experience reports found that individuals scoring high on mysticism scales used more socially and spatially inclusive language (e.g., "we," "with," "close") and fewer specific, dogmatic religious terms, perhaps reflecting the unitive and less conceptually bound nature of the core experience itself.18 The persistent reports of ineffability and the recourse to apophatic or paradoxical formulations strongly indicate that these advanced states touch upon, or perhaps reside within, a domain of awareness where conceptual thought reaches its limit. ### Comparative Overview of Advanced Formless States To provide a clearer comparative perspective, the following table summarizes key features of the advanced formless or unitive states discussed across different traditions: | | | | | | |---|---|---|---|---| |Tradition|Key Terminology|Core Phenomenological Features|Interpretive Notes / Goal|Relevant Snippets| |Theravada Buddhism|Base of Infinite Space (5th Jhana / 1st Arūpajhāna)|Focus: Boundless space. Awareness: Expansive, formless. Self: Diminished focus on personal form. Affect: Equanimity.|Transcend form perception; step towards cessation of suffering.|34| |Theravada Buddhism|Base of Infinite Consciousness (6th Jhana / 2nd Arūpajhāna)|Focus: Boundless consciousness. Awareness: Awareness of infinite knowing. Self: Further diminished identification with limited mind. Affect: Equanimity.|Transcend perception of space; recognize boundless nature of awareness.|34| |Theravada Buddhism|Base of Nothingness (7th Jhana / 3rd Arūpajhāna)|Focus: Absence/void ("there is nothing"). Awareness: Focused on lack of previous object (consciousness). Self: Highly attenuated. Affect: Equanimity.|Transcend infinite consciousness; focus on absence as object.|34| |Theravada Buddhism|Base of Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception (8th Jhana / 4th Arūpajhāna)|Focus: Subtlest possible object/state. Awareness: Residual, defies perception/non-perception dichotomy. Self: Minimal residual sense. Affect: Equanimity.|Transcend nothingness; reach limit of conditioned existence before cessation.|34| |Theravada / Mahayana Buddhism|Cessation (Nirodha / Nirodha Samāpatti)|Focus: None. Awareness: Complete absence/gap in consciousness stream. Self: Absent. Affect: None during; peace/insight upon emergence.|Temporary experience of Nirvana; insight into cessation of suffering; path/fruition attainment.|34| |Mahayana Buddhism|Emptiness (Śūnyatā)|Focus: Nature of phenomena. Awareness: Insight into lack of inherent existence, interdependence. Self: Seen as constructed/empty. Affect: Wisdom, compassion, peace.|Realization of ultimate nature of reality; liberation through wisdom.|44| |Yoga (Patanjali)|Asamprajnata / Nirbija Samadhi|Focus: Objectless. Awareness: Pure, non-dual, cessation of mental fluctuations (citta vritti nirodha). Self: Ego transcended/dissolved. Affect: Profound peace, bliss, unity.|Liberation (Kaivalya); merging with universal consciousness; cessation of seeds of karma.|30| |Christian Mysticism|Unitive State / Unio Mystica / Cloud of Unknowing|Focus: God/Divine (via love/unknowing). Awareness: Communion, alignment, non-conceptual presence. Self: Surrendered, aligned with Divine will, boundaries blurred but often distinct from God. Affect: Love, peace, joy, sometimes preceded by "dark night".|Loving union/communion with God; deification (becoming God-like).|12| |Sufism|Fanāʾ (Annihilation)|Focus: God. Awareness: Overwhelmed by Divine presence, loss of self-awareness. Self: Annihilated/dissolved in God. Affect: Intoxication (sukr), ecstasy.|Passing away of the lower self (nafs) in God.|41| |Sufism|Baqāʾ (Subsistence)|Focus: God and world/self. Awareness: Stable awareness of self and God simultaneously. Self: Returned, transformed, purified, acting with Divine will. Affect: Sobriety (ṣaḥw), peace, groundedness.|Subsistence in God; living in harmony with Divine will after transformation.|41| |Jewish Mysticism (Kabbalah)|Ayin (Nothingness)|Focus: Divine essence beyond conception. Awareness: Transcendent, non-conceptual. Self: Annulment of ego (bittul ha-yesh). Affect: Awe, reverence.|Encountering the infinite Divine reality which appears as 'nothing' to finite conception.|12| Note: This table provides a simplified overview. Phenomenological descriptions and interpretations can vary significantly even within a single tradition. ## III. The Path Taken: Mechanisms of Attenuation and Refinement The attainment of advanced states of boundless or formless awareness is typically described not as a sudden leap, but as the culmination of a gradual process involving systematic mental training. This process generally involves a progressive disengagement from ordinary modes of perception and thought, movement through distinct stages, and the refinement of specific cognitive and psychological capacities. ### A. Progressive Disengagement: Reducing Reliance on Sensory Input and Discursive Thought A common thread running through diverse contemplative paths is the intentional, progressive shift of attention away from reliance on external sensory stimuli and internal discursive thinking as the primary anchors of awareness.25 This is often conceptualized as a movement from attending to "gross" objects (like physical sensations) towards "subtle" objects (like mental states or abstract concepts), or transitioning from "form realms" (rūpa) to "formless realms" (arūpa) as explicitly described in the context of Buddhist jhānas.34 The mechanisms facilitating this disengagement are cultivated through specific meditative techniques. Focused Attention (FA) practices, such as concentrating on the breath, directly train the ability to select a target object and, crucially, to notice when attention has wandered to distractions (whether sensory inputs or internal thoughts) and gently but firmly disengage from those distractions to return to the intended focus.47 This repeated practice strengthens fundamental attentional control networks 25, providing the stability necessary for deeper exploration. Subsequently, Open Monitoring (OM) practices often involve intentionally letting go of a single point of focus and cultivating a non-reactive awareness of whatever arises in the field of experience moment by moment.47 This practice further weakens the habitual tendency to grasp onto or get lost in specific mental contents, fostering a greater sense of detachment from the stream of thoughts and sensations.47 Central to this process of disengagement are the cultivated qualities of non-attachment and acceptance. Non-attachment, understood in the Buddhist context as the relinquishing of craving for pleasant experiences and aversion to unpleasant ones 25, reduces the "pull" that sensations and thoughts exert on attention. Acceptance, defined as allowing experiences to arise and pass without judgment or resistance 26, prevents the mind from getting entangled in reactive patterns. By diminishing reactivity, the power of thoughts and sensations to automatically capture and hold attention is lessened, freeing awareness to rest in more subtle or objectless states. ### B. Stages Toward Formless Awareness: Commonalities Across Contemplative Paths While specific maps vary, many contemplative traditions describe a staged progression towards more refined and formless states of awareness. - Buddhist Jhanas: The Pali Canon outlines a clear progression, starting with the four material jhanas, achieved through seclusion from hindrances and characterized by factors like applied thought, sustained thought, rapture, pleasure, and one-pointedness, which are progressively abandoned leading to the fourth jhana marked by pure equanimity and mindfulness.35 These states, or the development of sufficient concentration (samatha), are often considered prerequisites for entering the four subsequent formless jhanas (infinite space, infinite consciousness, nothingness, neither perception nor non-perception), each attained by "completely surpassing" the previous one.34 - Yogic Samadhi Stages: Patanjali's Ashtanga (Eight-Limbed) Yoga outlines a systematic path beginning with ethical precepts (Yamas, Niyamas), moving through physical postures (Asana) and breath control (Pranayama), towards inner refinement: withdrawal of the senses (Pratyahara), concentration (Dharana), meditation (Dhyana), and culminating in absorption (Samadhi).30 Within Samadhi itself, further stages are sometimes delineated, such as the progression within Samprajnata Samadhi from focus on gross objects (Savitarka) to subtle objects (Savichara), then to bliss (Sananda), and finally to the pure sense of "I-am-ness" (Sasmita), before potentially reaching the objectless state of Asamprajnata or Nirbija Samadhi.31 This represents a clear trajectory from external discipline to internal absorption and transcendence of objects. - Mystical Ascent (e.g., Christian): Christian mystical literature also frequently describes stages of ascent towards union with God. Evelyn Underhill, synthesizing various accounts, proposed a five-stage model: Awakening (initial awareness of Divine Reality), Purgation (purification, detachment from sin and self), Illumination (moments of transcendence, ecstasy, insight, but self remains distinct), Dark Night of the Soul (period of desolation, doubt, spiritual aridity, final purgation of selfhood), and Union (culminating state of loving union/communion with God, seen as a gift of grace).40 The Cloud of Unknowing similarly depicts a journey from a scattered mind towards a restful state of union, achieved through love and the discipline of "unknowing".39 The stages of purgation and the dark night explicitly involve processes of disengagement from worldly attachments and even spiritual consolations.40 Despite terminological and conceptual differences, a common trajectory can be discerned across these paths.25 This typically involves: 1. Initial practices to stabilize attention and calm the mind (e.g., ethical conduct, concentration). 2. Progressive withdrawal of attention from external sensory input and internal discursive thought. 3. Movement through intermediate states characterized by increasing subtlety, concentration, positive affect, and unification of awareness. 4. Potential encounters with periods of difficulty, desolation, or purification ("dark night"). 5. Culmination in states of profound absorption, formless awareness, or transcendent union/insight. ### C. Cognitive and Psychological Mechanisms: Deautomatization, Attention Regulation, and Shifts Toward Abstraction Understanding the transition towards formless awareness requires examining the underlying cognitive and psychological mechanisms potentially involved. Attention Regulation: As previously noted, the systematic training of attention is fundamental.25 Developing the capacity to sustain focus (FA), monitor for distractions, disengage from them, and shift attention voluntarily provides the necessary control to move away from habitual modes of processing dominated by sensory input and spontaneous thought streams. Enhanced attentional control is a prerequisite for intentionally directing awareness towards more subtle or abstract objects, or maintaining objectless awareness. Deautomatization: A key concept from cognitive science relevant here is deautomatization.26 Much of our daily mental life operates on "autopilot," driven by automatic, unconscious processes and habitual reactions.51 Deautomatization refers to the process by which these automatic operations are brought back into conscious awareness, thereby becoming subject to intentional inhibition or modification.26 Mindfulness practices, through their components of awareness, attention, present focus, and acceptance, are thought to directly facilitate deautomatization.26 By becoming aware of automatic thoughts, emotional reactions, or ingrained biases without immediately acting on them, practitioners learn to disengage from these patterns.25 Studies using tasks like the Stroop test suggest that even short periods of meditation can impact automatic processing.50 This process of "cutting the marionette strings" of unconscious programming 51 seems crucial for moving beyond states dominated by habitual sensory grasping and conceptual proliferation. Shift to Abstraction/Formlessness: The specific mechanisms enabling the shift from focusing on concrete objects (like breath sensations) to highly abstract concepts (like infinite space or consciousness) or even objectless states remain an area for further investigation.34 It likely involves leveraging the highly developed concentration and attentional control skills to intentionally shift the object or scope of awareness. Deautomatization plays a role by weakening the default tendency to anchor awareness in concrete sensory experience or discursive thought. Furthermore, the reduction of elaborative processing cultivated in OM practices 47 may facilitate the move towards less conceptual, more direct modes of knowing. Metacognitive Insight: The development of metacognitive insight – the ability to observe mental phenomena (thoughts, feelings) as transient events rather than as direct reflections of reality or self – is another critical factor.25 This capacity, often termed "decentering" or "reperceiving," is fostered by practices emphasizing present-moment awareness and non-judgmental observation. By dis-identifying from the content of the mind, awareness becomes less bound to specific thoughts or perceptions, creating the possibility of resting in awareness itself or attending to its more subtle dimensions. The process of deautomatization appears particularly pivotal in enabling the transition towards formless awareness.26 Ordinary consciousness is often characterized by an automatic grasping or identification with sensory objects and mental chatter. By bringing these automatic processes into the light of awareness through practices like mindfulness, individuals gain the capacity to consciously disengage from them. This "unbinding" from habitual modes of perception and cognition seems to be a necessary step, creating the mental freedom required to stabilize attention on progressively more subtle or abstract fields like infinite space or infinite consciousness, or to eventually let go of objects altogether and abide in a state of pure, formless awareness. ## IV. Scientific Frameworks for Understanding Subjective Shifts Contemporary cognitive science and neuroscience offer valuable frameworks and tools for investigating the profound shifts in subjective experience reported by contemplative practitioners. While these scientific approaches may not capture the full richness or ontological interpretations of the traditions, they provide potential mechanisms and objective correlates for these states. ### A. Cognitive Models: Focused Attention, Open Monitoring, and Altered Attentional States Cognitive research on meditation often categorizes practices into two broad styles: Focused Attention (FA) and Open Monitoring (OM).47 - FA meditation involves sustaining selective attention on a specific object (e.g., breath, mantra) while monitoring for and disengaging from distractions. It primarily trains skills like sustained attention, conflict monitoring, and inhibitory control.26 - OM meditation involves cultivating a non-reactive, moment-to-moment awareness of the contents of experience as they arise, without selecting a specific object. It emphasizes meta-awareness and is thought to reduce elaborative conceptual processing.47 These categories map reasonably well onto traditional practices, with FA corresponding to concentration practices like samatha or the initial stages of many meditation forms, and OM resembling insight practices like vipassanā or "choiceless awareness".47 Often, OM is seen as building upon a foundation of attentional stability developed through FA.47 Advanced contemplative states, such as the jhānas or deep samadhi, likely represent highly altered states of attention that may extend beyond the standard FA/OM framework. These states of deep absorption seem to involve an exceptionally high degree of sustained attention, minimal distractibility, significantly reduced processing of external sensory input, and potentially a profound sense of effortlessness.31 While sharing some superficial similarities with "flow" states (e.g., effortless concentration, loss of self-consciousness) 56, deep meditative absorption is generally considered more profound, sustained, and internally focused, extending beyond task engagement to states of pure awareness.31 Other cognitive models emphasize the role of mindfulness in enhancing cognitive flexibility (the ability to adapt processing strategies) and fostering a shift towards a more embodied sense of self, grounded in interoceptive awareness rather than abstract thought.27 ### B. Neuroscientific Insights: DMN Modulation, Dynamic Brain States, and Neural Correlates of Advanced Meditation Neuroscience provides converging evidence for the impact of meditation on brain function and structure. A key finding involves the Default Mode Network (DMN), a network of brain regions typically active during rest, mind-wandering, self-referential thought, and thinking about the past or future.53 Multiple studies consistently show that meditation practice, especially in long-term practitioners, is associated with reduced activity in the DMN across different meditation styles (including concentration, loving-kindness, and open awareness/choiceless awareness) compared to rest or even other active cognitive tasks.53 This DMN suppression is interpreted as a neural correlate of reduced mind-wandering and self-focused rumination, aligning with the goals and experiential reports of meditation.53 Research on advanced states like the Buddhist jhānas is revealing more specific neural dynamics. An intensive 7-Tesla fMRI case study of an expert jhāna meditator identified distinct dynamic brain states that characterized the meditation periods compared to control states.55 - A DMN-anticorrelated state, showing strong negative correlations between the DMN and other brain networks, became significantly more prevalent as the meditator entered deeper jhāna states. This state is thought to reflect heightened attentional focus and active suppression of self-referential processing.55 - A hyperconnected state, characterized by widespread increased connectivity, particularly involving thalamocortical pathways and the somatomotor network, was also more common during jhāna but significantly decreased in prevalence over the course of the meditation session. This state correlated with phenomenological reports of narrower attention and greater awareness of physical sensations, suggesting it may relate to focused sensory processing that diminishes as attention broadens and absorption deepens.55 These findings demonstrate that distinct, measurable brain states track the progression into and deepening of advanced meditative absorption. Other relevant neural findings include: - Reduced activation in the amygdala in response to emotional stimuli in meditators, suggesting decreased emotional reactivity.27 - Increased activation in regions like the temporoparietal junction (TPJ), associated with empathy and perspective-taking.27 - Alterations in the prefrontal cortex (involved in executive functions like attention and regulation) and the parietal lobe (involved in spatial awareness and the sense of self-other boundaries).31 Decreased parietal activity during deep meditation may correlate with reduced sense of self-world separation.31 - Distinct brainwave patterns: increased alpha and theta waves during relaxation and deepening meditation, and potentially synchronized gamma waves associated with heightened awareness, integration, and states of "oneness" or Asamprajnata Samadhi.31 - Enhanced performance monitoring capabilities, reflected in larger error-related brain potentials (Ne/ERN, CRN) in meditators, indicating improved cognitive control.50 ### C. Theoretical Perspectives: Predictive Processing, Active Inference, Self-Models, and Integrated Information Theory (IIT) Beyond empirical findings, theoretical frameworks attempt to provide deeper explanations for how contemplative practices alter consciousness. Predictive Processing (PP) and Active Inference (AI): This influential framework proposes that the brain is fundamentally a prediction machine.27 It constantly generates models (priors) to predict incoming sensory information and minimizes the "prediction error" (the difference between prediction and actual input) either by updating the internal model or by acting on the world to make sensations conform to predictions (active inference). Meditation is increasingly being interpreted through this lens: - Shifting the Balance: Meditation, particularly mindfulness, may reduce the weighting or influence of top-down predictions (priors based on past experience and concepts) and increase sensitivity to bottom-up sensory data, fostering present-moment awareness.27 - Modulating Precision: Practices might alter the "precision" assigned to predictions (the brain's confidence in them). Focused attention might increase precision related to the meditation object, while OM or insight practices might decrease the precision of habitual, rigid priors, allowing for greater flexibility and openness to experience.44 Deep absorption states like jhāna might involve a profound downregulation of predictive expectations altogether.60 EEG studies using auditory oddball paradigms during jhāna aim to test this hypothesis by measuring mismatch negativity, an index of prediction error processing.60 - Deconstructing Self-Models: The sense of self can be viewed as a high-level predictive model. Meditation may systematically challenge and deconstruct this model by highlighting discrepancies between the model and actual experience (e.g., the impermanent, non-solid nature of thoughts and feelings).45 This could lead to shifts in the perceived boundary between self and world (the Markov blanket in AI terms), with insights experienced as "phase shifts" in the fundamental self-model.45 Practices might gradually reduce reliance on temporally deep, counterfactual self-related cognition.48 - Explaining Formless States: Within PP/AI, insight into emptiness (śūnyatā) might correspond to relaxing hyperpriors (deeply ingrained beliefs) about the solidity and permanence of self and world, recognizing the constructed nature of perception.44 Cessation (nirodha) could potentially be modeled as the complete suspension of prediction, releasing even the most basic expectation to be aware.44 - Altering Existential Predictions: Research suggests meditation can alter automatic, prediction-based defense mechanisms that normally shield the self from the awareness of mortality, correlating with greater acceptance and well-being.62 Integrated Information Theory (IIT): IIT offers a different approach, attempting to mathematically formalize consciousness based on a system's capacity for integrated information (Φ).65 Φ measures the extent to which a system's current state specifies its own past and future states in a way that cannot be decomposed into independent parts. Consciousness, according to IIT, is identical to this maximal irreducible cause-effect power within a system.67 IIT posits that the quantity of consciousness corresponds to the value of Φ, while the quality of experience is determined by the structure of the conceptual space generated by the system's causal interactions.65 While IIT has been applied to analyze states like sleep, anesthesia, and the psychedelic state (hypothesized to involve increased entropy but potentially decreased Φ due to less differentiated integration) 65, its specific application to modeling the nuances of advanced contemplative states like jhāna or samadhi is still developing. It could potentially offer a way to quantify shifts in the complexity and integration of consciousness during these practices, but translating the rich phenomenology into IIT's mathematical framework remains a significant challenge. ### D. Bridging Perspectives: Points of Convergence and Divergence between Scientific and Contemplative Accounts Comparing scientific models with traditional contemplative accounts reveals both encouraging convergence and significant divergence. Points of Convergence: - The crucial role of attention regulation is emphasized in both cognitive models (FA/OM) and traditional descriptions of meditative training.25 - Neuroscientific findings of reduced DMN activity align well with the subjective reports and traditional goals of decreasing self-referential thought, rumination, and mind-wandering, potentially correlating with experiences of self-transcendence or emptiness.53 - The scientific concept of deautomatization 26 and the PP notion of loosening priors 45 resonate with traditional descriptions of overcoming habitual patterns of thought and perception, and deconstructing attachments or rigid views. - Both perspectives acknowledge the progressive nature of contemplative training, leading to both temporary state changes and lasting trait transformations in cognition, emotion, and potentially brain function.32 Points of Divergence and Gaps: - Subjective Quality (Qualia): Scientific models currently struggle to explain the subjective, felt quality of experiences – the "what it's like" of profound bliss, boundless love, or the sense of unity often described in contemplative accounts. This relates to the broader "hard problem of consciousness".66 - Ontological Claims: Contemplative traditions often make claims about the nature of ultimate reality (e.g., God, Brahman, Emptiness, Dao) that are typically outside the scope of scientific inquiry, which focuses on mechanisms and correlates rather than metaphysical truths.12 - Scope of States: While science is beginning to investigate states like jhāna, the full spectrum of advanced states described in various traditions (e.g., "neither perception nor non-perception," various forms of samadhi, mystical union) is not yet fully mapped or explained by current scientific models.44 - Transformative Meaning: The profound personal meaning, existential significance, and transformative impact attributed to these states within traditions are often reduced to psychological or neurological processes in scientific accounts, potentially missing crucial dimensions of the experience.29 The threat of reductionism – explaining away the experience as "just brain activity" – is a persistent concern.38 Neurophenomenology offers a promising methodological approach to bridge these perspectives by systematically correlating detailed, first-person experiential reports with simultaneous neurophysiological measurements, aiming for mutual constraints between subjective and objective data.13 Ultimately, contemporary scientific models provide increasingly sophisticated maps that illuminate potential cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying contemplative experiences. They show significant alignment with traditional accounts regarding the processes involved, such as attentional training, de-habituation, and the quieting of the self-referential mind. However, these scientific maps do not yet fully capture the richness of the experiential territory itself—its profound subjective qualities, its existential significance, or the ontological claims associated with it by practitioners and traditions. Recognizing the strengths and limitations of both scientific and contemplative ways of knowing is essential for fostering a truly integrative understanding. ## V. Transformation, Well-being, and Human Potential Beyond the phenomenological descriptions and underlying mechanisms, a central aspect of advanced contemplative states is their reported transformative power. Across traditions, the cultivation of these states is associated with profound positive changes in psychological functioning, emotional well-being, and the individual's fundamental sense of self and reality. ### A. Claimed Outcomes: Psychological, Emotional, and Spiritual Effects of Advanced States Contemplative traditions and modern research converge on a wide array of benefits associated with dedicated practice, particularly reaching advanced stages: - Enhanced Psychological Well-being: Numerous studies and meta-analyses report significant improvements in overall well-being, life satisfaction, and positive affect.1 - Reduced Distress and Suffering: Practices are consistently shown to reduce symptoms of stress, anxiety, depression, burnout, and perceived suffering.1 The Buddhist goal of ending dukkha (suffering/unsatisfactoriness) is central.25 - Improved Emotional Regulation: A core outcome is the enhanced ability to manage emotions effectively, reducing reactivity and increasing equanimity.3 - Increased Positive Emotions: Cultivation of states like joy, bliss, peace, love, and compassion is a common feature and goal.1 - Cognitive Enhancements: Improvements in attention, cognitive control, metacognitive awareness, and potentially cognitive flexibility are reported.4 - Prosocial Development: Increased empathy, compassion, altruism, and a sense of connection are frequently highlighted outcomes, often targeted directly through specific practices like loving-kindness meditation.1 - Shifts in Self-Perception and Reality: Profound changes in the sense of self (e.g., ego dissolution, non-dual awareness, realization of emptiness) and one's understanding of reality are hallmarks of advanced states.12 - Increased Meaning and Purpose: Contemplation can foster a deeper sense of meaning, purpose, and alignment with core values.1 - Spiritual Growth: Depending on the tradition, outcomes are framed as spiritual awakening, liberation, enlightenment, self-realization, or union with the Divine.2 Specific examples illustrate these connections: the S-ART framework links the process of developing self-awareness, regulation, and transcendence through mindfulness directly to reduced bias and increased prosociality 25; spontaneous awakening experiences can trigger lasting shifts in values and identity 29; Yogic Samadhi is described as leading to unity, self-realization, and boundless compassion 30; the Sufi path through Fanāʾ and Baqāʾ aims for a transformed self living in harmony with God's will 41; and Buddhist insights into emptiness or cessation are considered pivotal for liberation from suffering.44 Meta-analyses of contemplative interventions generally support positive effects on well-being and distress, although methodological rigor and effect sizes vary across studies.3 ### B. Cross-Traditional Consistency: Well-being, Reduced Suffering, and Altered Self-Perception When assessing the consistency of these claimed outcomes across diverse traditions and belief systems, a remarkable degree of convergence emerges, particularly regarding the core psychological benefits. Increased psychological well-being, reduced suffering (or improved coping with it), and fundamental shifts in self-perception appear to be widely reported outcomes, regardless of the specific doctrinal interpretation.1 Whether the mechanism is understood as divine grace, insight into emptiness, realization of the true Self, union with God, or enhanced self-regulation, the resulting psychological shifts often manifest in similar ways: greater peace, reduced reactivity, increased positive emotions, and a less constricted sense of self. The cultivation of prosocial qualities like compassion and empathy also appears to be a consistent outcome achievable through various contemplative approaches, suggesting these are trainable human capacities rather than being strictly tied to one belief system.1 While the core psychological benefits show consistency, the underlying belief system undoubtedly shapes the interpretation, meaning, and specific flavor of the transformation.33 The experience of unity might be framed as union with a personal God in one tradition and as realizing non-dual awareness or emptiness in another. The path itself might emphasize love and devotion or insight and wisdom. However, the functional outcomes—such as the ability to regulate attention and emotion, decenter from thoughts, and experience greater equanimity—may represent more universal consequences of the mental training involved. It is worth noting, however, that some research suggests that the reported benefits of meditation interventions in studies can sometimes be influenced by factors such as whether the meditation teacher is also an author on the study, or whether passive (waitlist) versus active control groups are used, highlighting the need for continued methodological rigor.4 ### C. Broader Implications: Contributions to Understanding Consciousness and Human Flourishing The study of advanced contemplative states carries significant implications beyond the specific traditions themselves, contributing to a broader understanding of consciousness and human potential. Exploring Human Potential: These states represent explorations into the upper limits of human psychological development, well-being, and self-transcendence.2 They align with concepts like Abraham Maslow's notions of self-actualization and peak experiences, extending the hierarchy of needs towards self-transcendence.6 Transpersonal psychology explicitly focuses on these stages beyond the conventional ego, viewing them as integral to realizing full human potential.6 Understanding Consciousness: Advanced contemplative states challenge models of consciousness that are solely based on typical waking, egoic experience or tied strictly to processing external stimuli. The existence of states of pure awareness, profound bliss seemingly independent of external cause, non-dual perception, or even temporary cessation suggests that consciousness possesses an intrinsic nature and a remarkable plasticity allowing for radical reconfiguration.7 Studying these states pushes the boundaries of consciousness science, demanding models that can accommodate such profound subjective variations. Informing Well-being Frameworks: Insights from contemplative traditions and research on their effects contribute to contemporary models of psychological well-being and flourishing. For instance, the framework highlighting four key dimensions of well-being—awareness (including meta-awareness), connection (prosociality, empathy, compassion), insight (self-knowledge, understanding the nature of mind), and purpose (clarity on values, meaning in life)—directly maps onto qualities cultivated through various contemplative practices.1 This suggests that well-being is not merely the absence of pathology but involves trainable skills that can be systematically developed. The consistent reports of personal transformation across diverse traditions point towards a potentially fundamental process at play. These advanced states, by offering direct experiential evidence that contradicts the ordinary, habitual, ego-centric model of self and world, may catalyze a profound reconfiguration of this underlying model. Whether through the overwhelming unity of mystical experience, the insight into emptiness, the peace of deep absorption, or the temporary dissolution of self in cessation, these experiences can provide powerful leverage for updating deeply ingrained patterns of perception, cognition, emotion, and behavior. This perspective, integrating contemplative reports with cognitive frameworks like predictive processing 45, suggests that transformation arises not just from believing differently, but from experiencing differently, leading to a lasting shift in the individual's fundamental way of being in the world. ## VI. Methodological Considerations for Cross-Tradition Research Investigating advanced contemplative states across different traditions presents unique and significant methodological challenges. Addressing these challenges rigorously is crucial for building a reliable and nuanced understanding of these profound subjective phenomena. ### A. Challenges in Studying Subjective Experience Across Cultures Several inherent difficulties complicate the scientific study of advanced contemplative states, particularly in cross-cultural contexts: - Subjectivity and Introspection: The primary data source is subjective experience, which is private and not directly accessible to external observers.13 Science has historically been skeptical of introspection due to concerns about reliability and bias.13 - Ineffability and Language: As discussed previously, practitioners often describe these experiences as partially or wholly ineffable, making verbal reporting inherently limited.12 Language itself may be inadequate to capture non-conceptual or non-dual states. - Cross-Cultural Biases: Comparing subjective reports across cultures introduces multiple potential biases that can threaten the validity of findings 16: - Construct Bias: Core concepts like "consciousness," "self," "awareness," "emptiness," or "well-being" may hold different meanings and connotations in different cultural and linguistic contexts. Assuming equivalence can lead to misinterpretations.16 - Method Bias: Differences in how research is conducted across cultures can introduce bias. This includes sampling bias (are the groups truly comparable?), administration bias (differences in testing environment, instructions, or researcher-participant interaction), and instrument bias (unfamiliarity with certain question formats or technologies).16 Response styles can also differ culturally (e.g., tendencies towards acquiescence, extreme responding, or socially desirable responding).16 - Item Bias: Specific questions or items within a questionnaire may function differently across cultures due to poor translation, cultural irrelevance of content, or ambiguous phrasing.16 - Translation: Accurately translating complex psychological and philosophical concepts, as well as assessment instruments, across languages is a major hurdle. Simple literal translation is often insufficient; achieving conceptual and functional equivalence requires careful adaptation and validation, often using methods like back-translation, committee approaches, or decentring (modifying the original instrument).17 Ensuring participants fully comprehend instructions and questions, even when proficient in the language of the instrument, can be difficult.17 - Cultural Norms and Communication Styles: Cultures vary significantly in communication styles (direct vs. indirect, importance of non-verbal cues), attitudes towards self-disclosure, expressions of emotion, and perceptions of authority, all of which can influence participant responses and interactions with researchers.15 Differences between individualistic and collectivist orientations can also impact responses, for example, regarding responsibility or group harmony.17 - Rarity of Practitioners: Advanced contemplative states are, by definition, not commonplace. Recruiting sufficient numbers of practitioners who have genuinely attained specific states (like deep jhāna or samadhi) for rigorous quantitative research is challenging, often necessitating case studies or small-sample investigations.59 ### B. Toward Rigorous Inquiry: Best Practices in Neurophenomenology and First-Person Methods Despite these challenges, researchers are developing increasingly sophisticated methodologies to study subjective contemplative experiences with greater rigor and sensitivity. - Neurophenomenology: This approach explicitly seeks to integrate rich first-person data with third-person neuroscientific measures (fMRI, EEG, MEG, psychophysiology).13 The core idea is not just to find neural correlates, but to use detailed, structured subjective reports generated through specific methods to guide the analysis and interpretation of complex neural data, creating a loop of mutual constraint and illumination.14 - Refined First-Person Methods: Moving beyond simple questionnaires requires employing methods designed to elicit more nuanced and reliable subjective data 5: - Training in Introspection: Training participants in phenomenological observation techniques (like the Epoché, involving suspension of judgment, redirection of attention inward, and receptivity) or mindfulness-awareness practices can enhance their sensitivity to and ability to describe subtle aspects of their experience.14 - Structured Interviews: Using methods like the explicitation interview, which employs specific questioning techniques to help participants recall and articulate the fine-grained details of a past experience without imposing interpretation. - Real-time/Near-time Reporting: Employing Experience Sampling Methods (ESM) using mobile devices to capture experiences in daily life, or the Day Reconstruction Method (DRM) where participants systematically review their previous day, can reduce memory biases associated with retrospective reports.13 Collecting phenomenological ratings immediately after meditation sessions in neuroimaging studies is also crucial.55 - Qualitative Analysis: Rigorous qualitative analysis of interview transcripts or written reports, focusing on identifying themes and experiential categories grounded in the participants' own language (emic categories), is essential for understanding experiences from the practitioner's perspective before imposing external theoretical frameworks.5 - Addressing Cross-Cultural Bias and Achieving Equivalence: Best practices involve a multi-pronged approach 16: - Mixed Methods: Combining qualitative methods (to understand cultural context and generate hypotheses) with quantitative methods (for broader comparisons).10 - Careful Adaptation: Rigorous translation, back-translation, and cultural adaptation of instruments, pilot testing, and assessing measurement invariance (e.g., using factor analysis or differential item functioning analysis) across groups.16 - Bias Assessment: Explicitly measuring and statistically controlling for potential response style biases.72 - Culturally Sensitive Protocols: Designing research procedures that are respectful of and appropriate for the cultural context; involving diverse research teams with cultural insiders.17 - Alternative Measurement: Using visual scales, behavioral measures, or methods like MaxDiff scaling instead of standard Likert scales where appropriate to minimize language-based variance and response biases.71 - Within-Culture Analysis: Examining variability within cultural groups in addition to making between-group comparisons. - Developing Neutral Language: A key goal for comparative research is the development of a shared, neutral descriptive vocabulary that focuses on phenomenological features (e.g., quality of attention, sense of boundaries, affective tone) rather than tradition-specific interpretive labels [User Query]. This facilitates comparison without prematurely imposing one system's framework onto another. - Ecological Validity: Balancing controlled laboratory studies with research conducted in ecologically valid settings (e.g., during retreats, in daily life) to understand how practices and experiences unfold in their natural context.5 - Ethical Diligence: Maintaining high ethical standards is paramount, including ensuring truly informed consent (especially regarding potentially challenging experiences), protecting confidentiality, being sensitive to cultural norms, and considering the potential risks and benefits of participation in intense contemplative practice research.11 Given the multifaceted nature of advanced contemplative states, the inherent subjectivity, the challenges of ineffability, and the complexities of cross-cultural comparison, no single methodology is sufficient. Progress in contemplative science necessitates methodological pluralism. A combination of rigorous qualitative inquiry using refined first-person methods to understand the depth and nuance of experience, alongside quantitative approaches like surveys and neuroimaging to identify patterns and correlates, appears most promising. Furthermore, research must be iterative, constantly refining methods, concepts, and theories based on empirical findings from diverse populations and traditions, while rigorously addressing issues of bias and equivalence at every stage. This careful, multi-pronged, and culturally sensitive approach offers the best path toward building a robust and valid understanding of these profound dimensions of human consciousness. ## Conclusion This report has undertaken an interdisciplinary exploration of advanced contemplative states characterized by boundless awareness, infinite space/consciousness, and experiences of nothingness or emptiness. Synthesizing insights from philosophy, comparative mysticism, phenomenology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and transpersonal psychology reveals a rich, complex, yet increasingly coherent picture. The evidence suggests that human consciousness possesses latent capacities for self-awareness and self-transcendence, which can be cultivated through systematic contemplative training. Across diverse traditions—Buddhist, Yogic, Christian Mystical, Sufi, and others—practitioners report remarkably similar core phenomenological shifts in advanced stages, including the dissolution of the ordinary sense of self, experiences of profound unity or oneness, altered perceptions of space and time, and deep states of peace or bliss. While the interpretive frameworks and ultimate goals vary significantly based on doctrinal backgrounds, a common experiential territory related to the transcendence of the egoic structure appears accessible. States described as "nothingness" are multifaceted, encompassing distinct phenomenological realities: the insight into the lack of inherent existence (śūnyatā or emptiness), the temporary cessation of conscious experience (nirodha), focused attention on absence (as in the 7th Jhana), the dissolution of self into an ultimate reality (as in Fanāʾ), and paradoxical descriptions of a transcendent fullness beyond concepts (as in Ayin). Recognizing the distinction between nothingness as content (or lack thereof) and nothingness as process/insight is crucial. The limits of language, highlighted by reports of ineffability and the use of apophatic or paradoxical descriptions like "neither perception nor non-perception," underscore that these states likely operate at or beyond the boundaries of conceptual thought. The path towards these states typically involves progressive disengagement from habitual reliance on sensory input and discursive thought, often proceeding through identifiable stages of meditative refinement. Key cognitive and psychological mechanisms facilitating this journey include enhanced attention regulation, the deautomatization of ingrained cognitive and emotional patterns, and the development of metacognitive insight or decentering. Deautomatization, in particular, appears critical for "unbinding" awareness from habitual grasping, thereby enabling access to formless or objectless states. Contemporary scientific frameworks offer valuable tools for understanding these subjective shifts. Cognitive models distinguish between Focused Attention and Open Monitoring practices, while neuroscientific research highlights the consistent reduction of Default Mode Network activity associated with diminished self-referential thought. Dynamic neuroimaging studies are beginning to identify specific brain states correlated with the depth of advanced meditative absorption, such as the jhānas. Theoretical perspectives like Predictive Processing/Active Inference provide compelling models for how meditation might alter the brain's predictive models of self and world, potentially explaining phenomena like de-habituation, insight into emptiness, and shifts in the self-world boundary. Integrated Information Theory offers another potential, though less developed, avenue for quantifying changes in conscious integration. While these scientific models show convergence with traditional accounts regarding processes, they currently fall short of fully capturing the subjective qualia and ontological significance emphasized within the traditions themselves. The cultivation of these advanced states is consistently associated across traditions with profound transformative effects, including enhanced psychological well-being, reduced suffering, increased emotional regulation, heightened prosocial qualities like compassion, and fundamental shifts in the perception of self and reality. These outcomes underscore the potential of contemplative practices to foster human flourishing and explore the upper reaches of human potential, challenging conventional limitations placed on consciousness and well-being. The transformative power likely stems from the capacity of these states to provide direct experiential evidence that facilitates a fundamental reconfiguration of the individual's core models of self and world. Finally, rigorous research in this area demands methodological sophistication and cultural sensitivity. Challenges related to subjectivity, ineffability, and cross-cultural bias necessitate a pluralistic approach, integrating refined first-person methods within a neurophenomenological framework, employing mixed-methods designs, carefully addressing issues of equivalence, and developing neutral descriptive language. Future interdisciplinary research should prioritize longitudinal studies tracking contemplative development and transformation, detailed neurophenomenological investigations of specific advanced states across diverse traditions, further exploration of theoretical models like PP/AI and IIT in relation to contemplative phenomenology, the development and validation of robust cross-cultural assessment tools for subjective experiences, and careful consideration of the ethical dimensions of facilitating and studying intense contemplative practices. By continuing to bridge the insights of contemplative wisdom traditions with the rigorous methods of contemporary science, we can deepen our understanding of the vast potential of human consciousness, uncover novel pathways for alleviating suffering, and cultivate the qualities necessary for individual and collective flourishing in the 21st century. #### Works cited 1. Mindfulness and the contemplative life: pathways to connection, insight, and purpose, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://centerhealthyminds.org/assets/files-publications/Dahl-Davidson-Mindfulness-and-the-contemplative-life-pathways-to-connection-insight-and-purpose.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://centerhealthyminds.org/assets/files-publications/Dahl-Davidson-Mindfulness-and-the-contemplative-life-pathways-to-connection-insight-and-purpose.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269300554%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0FZx9w04EwA21FGZkEOu87&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269415599&usg=AOvVaw28cX47uKAJQ5LKk0L8tA__) 2. Mindfulness and Contemplative Practices - Transpersonal Psychology, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://transpersonal-psychology.iresearchnet.com/mindfulness-and-contemplative-practices/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://transpersonal-psychology.iresearchnet.com/mindfulness-and-contemplative-practices/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269301799%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3BW6YTLXx9sjwp8m0VhShs&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269415867&usg=AOvVaw28keQ08o_SaXozHzAaOjBS) 3. Differential Effects of Two Contemplative Practice-based Programs for Health Care Professionals, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://journals.copmadrid.org/pi/art/pi2019a12](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://journals.copmadrid.org/pi/art/pi2019a12%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269302645%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3CstkZEq3SvBlmOVMisgL1&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269415942&usg=AOvVaw32wwteWRZ8fnMJfOOGMPKc) 4. The effect of contemplative practices in work settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303619718_The_effect_of_contemplative_practices_in_work_settings_A_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/303619718_The_effect_of_contemplative_practices_in_work_settings_A_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269303785%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw288Db6M0V2cWQtIc0kIuUD&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416025&usg=AOvVaw3qDsUAGgahF95oXJipBBAY) 5. The varieties of contemplative experience: A mixed-methods study of meditation-related challenges in Western Buddhists - PubMed Central, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5443484/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5443484/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269304663%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0LJSTNGL24ElzvlWiXzO8Y&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416104&usg=AOvVaw1L4dMoWr5SGIJcInTJjUje) 6. What is Transpersonal Psychology? | Meridian University, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://meridianuniversity.edu/content/what-is-transpersonal-psychology](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://meridianuniversity.edu/content/what-is-transpersonal-psychology%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269305480%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2UENR-9bllqCHfbeLtgdQD&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416168&usg=AOvVaw230GxF9aSi1KWpvccXoDsS) 7. Transpersonal Psychology | BTA, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.britishtranspersonalassociation.org/copy-of-transpersonal-psychology](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.britishtranspersonalassociation.org/copy-of-transpersonal-psychology%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269306260%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1sY_dw8wP7kiQe91oO-a9U&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416234&usg=AOvVaw2P-NPK6pPQi8RXXsnqq6Gq) 8. A Review of Transpersonal Theory and Its Application to the Practice of Psychotherapy, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3330526/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3330526/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269307035%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3UcBMPmhkkMpk8FDc1V582&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416308&usg=AOvVaw35K7y0XVMmk5tPAddmyfKC) 9. 7.3 Transpersonal psychology and mystical experiences - Fiveable, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://library.fiveable.me/religion-psychology/unit-7/transpersonal-psychology-mystical-experiences/study-guide/Usi2Prsh1NgEAMcg](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://library.fiveable.me/religion-psychology/unit-7/transpersonal-psychology-mystical-experiences/study-guide/Usi2Prsh1NgEAMcg%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269308052%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0ygrmLb_DVZO2tMTo5VA9W&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416393&usg=AOvVaw35cGty_Ern_wXmaLD4gBwz) 10. Research Methods in Transpersonal Psychology - iResearchNet, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://transpersonal-psychology.iresearchnet.com/research-methods/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://transpersonal-psychology.iresearchnet.com/research-methods/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269308833%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3pBSoUV4GtYupn0hMIfild&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416489&usg=AOvVaw39otb5Y22Drt6Tdtspv1xe) 11. Transpersonal Psychology and Science: An Evaluation of Its Present Status and Future Directions - Book in Focus, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.cambridgescholars.com/news/item/book-in-focus-transpersonal-psychology-and-science](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.cambridgescholars.com/news/item/book-in-focus-transpersonal-psychology-and-science%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269309820%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0ZkyCZMxchbzNL83uOzRjf&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416585&usg=AOvVaw230-TobDPzfiZOSMPtOH1A) 12. Mysticism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mysticism/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mysticism/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269310490%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1AzdkifTrqy_XzhIY0-1kC&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416703&usg=AOvVaw22LPpQpbQcH25yWSB_CSG8) 13. Examining Subjective Experience: Advances in Neurophenomenology | Frontiers Research Topic, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/1163/examining-subjective-experience-advances-in-neurophenomenology/magazine](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/1163/examining-subjective-experience-advances-in-neurophenomenology/magazine%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269311561%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw16y58SeIoO8Fhpshe8PnyS&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416839&usg=AOvVaw2UvVwJW-sIBwdzdae9aX6F) 14. evanthompson.me, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://evanthompson.me/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/jcs-neurophenomenology.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://evanthompson.me/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/jcs-neurophenomenology.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269312270%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0dqqTd6nNlHJXqrw9XXrqZ&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416915&usg=AOvVaw3NZ8C6SDhmgJJ1Hl0rgNvC) 15. Working on Common Cross-cultural Communication Challenges - PBS, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.pbs.org/ampu/crosscult.html](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.pbs.org/ampu/crosscult.html%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269312945%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3d_RplY0CejjQwIcr-5kLU&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269416982&usg=AOvVaw16SiEh-B8HRlyCv5opoaoD) 16. Cross-Cultural Research Methodology In Psychology, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.simplypsychology.org/cross-cultural-research.html](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.simplypsychology.org/cross-cultural-research.html%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269313672%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2ZMrAzD4Wxr-vnb49JUzj0&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417046&usg=AOvVaw1Xh0PgU_9kWxAzdlZTuO4M) 17. An Overview of the Challenges faced during Cross-Cultural Research - University of Nottingham, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/sociology/documents/enquire/volume-8.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.nottingham.ac.uk/sociology/documents/enquire/volume-8.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269314417%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw20zIJ6pCIsFMvno5EQIFZ3&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417115&usg=AOvVaw3LgQsjtvUCPIM2nRGYRpUQ) 18. The Language of Ineffability: Linguistic Analysis of Mystical Experiences - ResearchGate, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281637495_The_Language_of_Ineffability_Linguistic_Analysis_of_Mystical_Experiences](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/281637495_The_Language_of_Ineffability_Linguistic_Analysis_of_Mystical_Experiences%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269315120%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0pMvN_Yg-uaNF1v5Jks0x5&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417186&usg=AOvVaw0_G-E_7-kPdzwUfsvA3shr) 19. Languages of ineffability: the rediscovery of apophaticism in contemporary analytic philosophy of religion - Open Access LMU, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/70312/1/languages%20of%20ineffability.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/70312/1/languages%252520of%252520ineffability.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269315744%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1-BEZl4fYUWzZWmKV2yArz&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417275&usg=AOvVaw2vK9Da9gJfVH_M2EIp68KJ) 20. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality - Johannes Eichstaedt, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://johannes-eichstaedt.squarespace.com/s/LanguageofIneffability9815-1.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://johannes-eichstaedt.squarespace.com/s/LanguageofIneffability9815-1.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269316440%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0H2Ql4PvR2XMcm7pKfmj2W&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417355&usg=AOvVaw1sTFIUkFCNzoT62PkVwD-g) 21. Apophatic theology - Wikipedia, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophatic_theology](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophatic_theology%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269316923%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2tHhY5jtxLlkhRpFczUTJM&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417431&usg=AOvVaw27aP-6M07afwUPL_mn-RYY) 22. William James on Mystical Experience - 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://1000wordphilosophy.com/2024/11/21/james-mystical-experience/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://1000wordphilosophy.com/2024/11/21/james-mystical-experience/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269317496%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1u_3udczmsenJ6Qnv6tqJ6&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417513&usg=AOvVaw0nAo7fmXjFm9GNaxRupfrN) 23. Embracing the Unknowable: Paradigm of Ineffability - MDPI, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/14/6/767](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/14/6/767%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269317951%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2AXVy51n-Y2IOObogneh4U&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417596&usg=AOvVaw05IY1zKZ3meXTLJR1BBBGj) 24. Mystical Experience and the Apophatic Attitude - Journal of Analytic Theology, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://jat-ojs-baylor.tdl.org/jat/article/download/jat.2016-4.180017240021a/279/550](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://jat-ojs-baylor.tdl.org/jat/article/download/jat.2016-4.180017240021a/279/550%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269318658%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0PkocVvvoRmHXwFd24Vz-X&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417672&usg=AOvVaw3p9qWYrY1loCr1EIfePczL) 25. Self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART): a ..., accessed April 25, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3480633/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3480633/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269319311%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0r06xf7-SnILN6VD7onwCH&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417740&usg=AOvVaw0eF7osPKMMtJvMLMnJTYia) 26. gruberpeplab.com, accessed April 25, 2025, [http://gruberpeplab.com/pdf/INPRESS_Kang.Gruber.Gray%20-%20Mindfulness%20Deautomatization.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttp://gruberpeplab.com/pdf/INPRESS_Kang.Gruber.Gray%252520-%252520Mindfulness%252520Deautomatization.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269319905%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3agS5QxKTISnA2wP4YtTj3&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417810&usg=AOvVaw13nuWlhhYBIt7eWdk5qzCp) 27. Mindfulness, cognition, and long-term meditators: Toward a science of advanced meditation, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://meditation.mgh.harvard.edu/files/Ehmann_24_OSF.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://meditation.mgh.harvard.edu/files/Ehmann_24_OSF.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269320515%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0Io3Rs4CCV8RA5XIJfKEbr&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417886&usg=AOvVaw0kIzgTMlSLG4i2c4qOttRD) 28. Full article: Reappraisal as a means to self-transcendence: Aquinas's model of emotion regulation informs the extended process model - Taylor & Francis Online, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09515089.2024.2307991](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09515089.2024.2307991%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269321246%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw09dIH8dY8qt741PFhoutzg&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269417963&usg=AOvVaw3Z5PRRLW90WtmV8_tfRCX6) 29. Your consciousness has been completely transformed. Now what ..., accessed April 25, 2025, [https://psyche.co/ideas/your-consciousness-has-been-completely-transformed-now-what](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://psyche.co/ideas/your-consciousness-has-been-completely-transformed-now-what%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269321911%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3gsJlHKAuxoTsymy5WKPkh&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418031&usg=AOvVaw2-BpXT9zg5LOcDflm273KG) 30. What is Samadhi - The 8th Limb of Yoga?, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.nicoleturneryoga.com/blog/what-is-samadhi-the-8th-limb-of-yoga](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.nicoleturneryoga.com/blog/what-is-samadhi-the-8th-limb-of-yoga%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269322706%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2_LbgHJ2WXrDg41sxbzCQR&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418098&usg=AOvVaw1EmZYRTF1g9joYTB3ZjXZV) 31. Neuroscience of Samadhi: Brainwaves, Neuroplasticity, and Deep ..., accessed April 25, 2025, [https://amitray.com/neuroscience-of-samadhi/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://amitray.com/neuroscience-of-samadhi/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269323348%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3NjDOCvMk7yjD8MXEw6aqN&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418165&usg=AOvVaw0er5RzCgeFBsrI0oxdQVFB) 32. Contemplative Practices and Mental Training: Prospects for American Education - Deep Blue Repositories, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/92125/cdep240.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/92125/cdep240.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269323985%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1_mCxbr06J94xoRNlyMxvs&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418232&usg=AOvVaw2aOZoQwEaBMmqa2yzVbEwu) 33. Emptiness and Unknowing: An Essay in Comparative Mysticism - SciSpace, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://scispace.com/pdf/emptiness-and-unknowing-an-essay-in-comparative-mysticism-2ttmrwg5ut.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://scispace.com/pdf/emptiness-and-unknowing-an-essay-in-comparative-mysticism-2ttmrwg5ut.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269324751%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2vl_rcwzUsssx5fIWCpqQm&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418308&usg=AOvVaw3v_A-bzBCjZeYwzIZiyi0_) 34. Can someone explain formless consciousnesses like the ones in Jhana? - Reddit, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/1aboxa5/can_someone_explain_formless_consciousnesses_like/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/1aboxa5/can_someone_explain_formless_consciousnesses_like/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269325676%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3o8cVHXtBCpbjzbKYEq1HB&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418382&usg=AOvVaw3IrBEW3YrV4dggfSP08oJl) 35. Can someone explain each jhanas in simple words? : r/Buddhism - Reddit, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/1dstifx/can_someone_explain_each_jhanas_in_simple_words/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.reddit.com/r/Buddhism/comments/1dstifx/can_someone_explain_each_jhanas_in_simple_words/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269326372%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3ryyQj291wCrDPYAwEsOHQ&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418462&usg=AOvVaw2HUA0erXE9FZTwn6vHYpxB) 36. Progressively more formless states, accessed April 25, 2025, [http://www.faculty.umb.edu/michael_lafargue/104/204/budd/rdngs/jhanas.htm](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttp://www.faculty.umb.edu/michael_lafargue/104/204/budd/rdngs/jhanas.htm%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269326909%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2Ezxr7MgL3TwGMYtgAChKd&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418530&usg=AOvVaw0kapU0o11l2TIv8isahIhZ) 37. Understanding Samadhi: The Ultimate State in Meditation - Inspire Nasal Strips, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://inspirenasalstrips.com/define/meditation/understanding-samadhi-the-ultimate-state-in-meditation/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://inspirenasalstrips.com/define/meditation/understanding-samadhi-the-ultimate-state-in-meditation/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269327539%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3XmFjyZyKr0Hw4U_zNrbwP&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418598&usg=AOvVaw1M6-NAyGwm1CogB0A6HB3u) 38. Scientific Approaches to Mysticism | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-3?p=emailA/nrQLHXOYvOs&d=/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-3](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-3?p%253DemailA/nrQLHXOYvOs%2526d%253D/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-3%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269328378%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3Qzf5unRuoE4UqWntbB-3j&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418681&usg=AOvVaw3fBNrD1kyHqqQ6QUcKstcj) 39. The two traditions of The Cloud of Unknowing - KUD Logos, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://kud-logos.si/the-two-traditions-of-the-cloud-of-unknowing/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://kud-logos.si/the-two-traditions-of-the-cloud-of-unknowing/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269328906%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw26QGvnTc4rSsCw6kbLSScj&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418761&usg=AOvVaw2nH1ai1EubIWBYOw0hz6dL) 40. Mysticism by Evelyn Underhill | EBSCO Research Starters, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/literature-and-writing/mysticism-evelyn-underhill](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/literature-and-writing/mysticism-evelyn-underhill%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269329703%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2mBPaz8dpZvWmgsdt1M5dj&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418828&usg=AOvVaw2l48CgZOnmusXukA7oapwX) 41. King's Research Portal - King's College London, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/93616506/Murata_Fana_and_Baqa.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/93616506/Murata_Fana_and_Baqa.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269330295%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw34dfvmgHXU31KIPQXKBEDE&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418897&usg=AOvVaw3qsaA5diRA7spzghR8Gp0N) 42. Fana (Sufism) - Wikipedia, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fana_(Sufism)](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fana_\(Sufism\)%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269330760%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3xCL8GtTUwbmXVihObEOwG&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269418960&usg=AOvVaw2iE9xccyK4XTlFYWPhMgrc) 43. Sufism - Sivanandaonline.org, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.sivanandaonline.org/?cmd=displaysection§ion_id=1661](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.sivanandaonline.org/?cmd%253Ddisplaysection%2526section_id%253D1661%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269331346%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2IPd8yqoAEAtQGkv4-b9WS&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419022&usg=AOvVaw2jOm6UqNPxxENO4AmyjfiN) 44. (PDF) Nothingness in meditation: Making sense of emptiness and ..., accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/379108769_Nothingness_in_meditation_Making_sense_of_emptiness_and_cessation](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/379108769_Nothingness_in_meditation_Making_sense_of_emptiness_and_cessation%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269332005%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1DbxNwiM-CIxBUs33GQQ5u&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419095&usg=AOvVaw23JcWn-1K34cNIQn86UoWZ) 45. Meditation insights as phase shifts in your self-model — LessWrong, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.lesswrong.com/posts/xEoFGxWEberJRDyoc/meditation-insights-as-phase-shifts-in-your-self-model](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.lesswrong.com/posts/xEoFGxWEberJRDyoc/meditation-insights-as-phase-shifts-in-your-self-model%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269332626%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1y5UwWoBPkyjfTLxJ951Tw&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419178&usg=AOvVaw0K14vz7sQIgvYZrnD2RtJO) 46. Nothingness and Emptiness: A Buddhist Engagement with the Ontology of Jean-Paul Sartre eBook - Amazon.com, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.amazon.com/Nothingness-Emptiness-Buddhist-Engagement-Jean-Paul-ebook/dp/B00QJ87GFE](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.amazon.com/Nothingness-Emptiness-Buddhist-Engagement-Jean-Paul-ebook/dp/B00QJ87GFE%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269333288%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0MskTBHh-VMAWX1sUTtBT9&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419271&usg=AOvVaw0bRKz1fHSIiAQ73D1ro1NE) 47. Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation - PMC, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2693206/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2693206/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269333750%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw13ewf9Ob0O7L9jckc6QnoL&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419345&usg=AOvVaw0gw0MNJpS6zbyW9L67mee3) 48. From many to (n)one:Meditation and the plasticity of the predictive mind - ResearchGate, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352378027_From_many_to_noneMeditation_and_the_plasticity_of_the_predictive_mind](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/352378027_From_many_to_noneMeditation_and_the_plasticity_of_the_predictive_mind%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269334577%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw07LuHOOR-bglH6Avqp5s-r&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419416&usg=AOvVaw2AxRN-m4D0K0Ox0BbtAPH2) 49. Defining Contemplative Science: The Metacognitive Self-Regulatory Capacity of the Mind, Context of Meditation Practice and Modes of Existential Awareness - Frontiers, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01788/full](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01788/full%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269335390%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2BMAt5RgLzHirdjEM2EFy1&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419495&usg=AOvVaw3KN27FZAayaBpfI5lxWqgN) 50. Meditation and Deautomatization | Request PDF - ResearchGate, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/384341741_Meditation_and_Deautomatization](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/384341741_Meditation_and_Deautomatization%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269335925%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1jbuGh2H-tlgQImtReV4NW&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419564&usg=AOvVaw3WHA56iz8twbAab_xqUCxt) 51. CogBlog – A Cognitive Psychology Blog » Moving From Autopilot Towards Mindfulness - The Colby College Community Web, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://web.colby.edu/cogblog/2020/11/24/moving-from-autopilot-towards-mindfulness/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://web.colby.edu/cogblog/2020/11/24/moving-from-autopilot-towards-mindfulness/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269336669%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw33GSyZfFaUQLuHJnlcGizA&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419661&usg=AOvVaw1GxIHT0lNayR_Wd7509HN1) 52. consciousness mind uploading: Topics by Science.gov, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.science.gov/topicpages/c/consciousness+mind+uploading.html](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.science.gov/topicpages/c/consciousness%252Bmind%252Buploading.html%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269337189%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2l4vmwRUJy2Gw_Na54Hjj1&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419738&usg=AOvVaw32z-lXuofpn1TX1xTE6XMX) 53. Meditation leads to reduced default mode network activity beyond an active task - PMC, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4529365/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4529365/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269337692%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3TmAzrrgSBaMRX_-BCdZks&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419813&usg=AOvVaw3DuwdESAyX3ULg9rMANe6-) 54. Matheou thesis 2024 redacted PDF-A.pdf - City Research Online, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/34711/1/Matheou%20thesis%202024%20redacted%20PDF-A.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/34711/1/Matheou%252520thesis%2525202024%252520redacted%252520PDF-A.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269338426%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1Hq2X6fgG-pXghvSZ7FIQD&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419879&usg=AOvVaw05f4Gzk02TCHIKBs6yA72e) 55. Dynamic brain states underlying advanced concentrative absorption ..., accessed April 25, 2025, [https://direct.mit.edu/netn/article/doi/10.1162/netn_a_00432/125508/Dynamic-brain-states-underlying-advanced](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://direct.mit.edu/netn/article/doi/10.1162/netn_a_00432/125508/Dynamic-brain-states-underlying-advanced%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269339055%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3db_RcAQt-LXOm2wgKCN8j&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269419951&usg=AOvVaw0KxbXV4PhspbbBcETDIiC_) 56. Self-transcendence facilitates meaning-making and flow: Evidence from a pilot experimental study - Psychology in Russia, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://psychologyinrussia.com/volumes/index.php?article=5224](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://psychologyinrussia.com/volumes/index.php?article%253D5224%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269339640%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw25ao8cFMtagaZaMGSoRjOW&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420028&usg=AOvVaw2igPFctzTI-YTMm2MkwrYE) 57. Interoception, contemplative practice, and health - Frontiers, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00763/full](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00763/full%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269340278%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw19Wrk6caNtIqnMYC9wOYkm&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420098&usg=AOvVaw0pmp5suU4CwlJo32Zcwl_O) 58. Meditation and the Default Mode Network - Mindfulness Association, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.mindfulnessassociation.net/research-blogs/meditation-and-the-default-mode-network/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.mindfulnessassociation.net/research-blogs/meditation-and-the-default-mode-network/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269341108%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0XdfwrevDwupKTsldqP1l3&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420167&usg=AOvVaw2XI2T4s4hebgnYSwQZsqSx) 59. Intensive whole-brain 7T MRI case study of volitional control of brain activity in deep absorptive meditation states | Request PDF - ResearchGate, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375523663_Intensive_whole-brain_7T_MRI_case_study_of_volitional_control_of_brain_activity_in_deep_absorptive_meditation_states?_share=1](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/375523663_Intensive_whole-brain_7T_MRI_case_study_of_volitional_control_of_brain_activity_in_deep_absorptive_meditation_states?_share%253D1%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269342455%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1z2vIsuj9aMKRot9aWjN4Q&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420262&usg=AOvVaw21QwqqemS91SzhKvG74E06) 60. 2nd Annual Conference - International Society for Contemplative Research, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://iscrsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/abstract-submission-summary.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://iscrsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/abstract-submission-summary.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269343179%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0Ym8VlFWbXTIfcovPOLHqW&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420360&usg=AOvVaw2o7qC446PkqINv8DQ7hO2i) 61. Altered States of Consciousness | Cognitive Psychology Class Notes - Fiveable, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://library.fiveable.me/cognitive-psychology/unit-14/altered-states-consciousness/study-guide/2EmMrWMf7at1a5nQ](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://library.fiveable.me/cognitive-psychology/unit-14/altered-states-consciousness/study-guide/2EmMrWMf7at1a5nQ%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269344010%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw15eD72ogywQS0thX3tzDvp&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420451&usg=AOvVaw334A8F-4jP9wW9349DaEn4) 62. Training the embodied self in its impermanence: meditators evidence neurophysiological markers of death acceptance | Neuroscience of Consciousness | Oxford Academic, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://academic.oup.com/nc/article/doi/10.1093/nc/niaf002/8046166](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://academic.oup.com/nc/article/doi/10.1093/nc/niaf002/8046166%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269344794%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0g9qeVKeaM2zztRnyn5s-6&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420545&usg=AOvVaw3-X1AnAH7BdvlmoD9T3cEL) 63. Clearing the gates of perception: Examining the effects of Jhana meditation on sensory predictions in the predictive brain - Mind & Life Institute, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.mindandlife.org/grant/clearing-the-gates-of-perception-examining-the-effects-of-jhana-meditation-on-sensory-predictions-in-the-predictive-brain/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.mindandlife.org/grant/clearing-the-gates-of-perception-examining-the-effects-of-jhana-meditation-on-sensory-predictions-in-the-predictive-brain/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269345672%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0swWoSzxbJN9xTaLuun016&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420633&usg=AOvVaw2omw7JJwzUGphNfKAMBqJ1) 64. assc27_abstracts_7-1.pdf, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://assc27.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/assc27_abstracts_7-1.pdf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://assc27.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/assc27_abstracts_7-1.pdf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269346171%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0YHjG-ZRCrL_QbLIYDcp4z&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420705&usg=AOvVaw2IOPgOcvFM44053GyaUNfZ) 65. Restructuring consciousness –the psychedelic state in light of integrated information theory - Frontiers, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/human-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00346/full](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.frontiersin.org/journals/human-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00346/full%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269347069%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1JRw9w8NwdzhO_BXaKQUTT&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420793&usg=AOvVaw3aml29nWcUL96MBeAsu5Em) 66. The Integrated Information Theory of Consciousness | Issue 121 - Philosophy Now, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://philosophynow.org/issues/121/The_Integrated_Information_Theory_of_Consciousness](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://philosophynow.org/issues/121/The_Integrated_Information_Theory_of_Consciousness%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269347983%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0gHAhZvmgRkaBNs_tzkFYh&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420902&usg=AOvVaw3tzVbqgw85oRNI9PvTYrn0) 67. Integrated Information Theory of Consciousness | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://iep.utm.edu/integrated-information-theory-of-consciousness/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://iep.utm.edu/integrated-information-theory-of-consciousness/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269348708%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0t7WXKIhPSYywZChBTlTfR&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269420977&usg=AOvVaw0mEltpTLcw5DUS_Eog7sj5) 68. THESIS INSIDE AND OUT: INDIVIDUAL AND RELATIONAL OUTCOMES OF CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICE - Mountain Scholar, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://mountainscholar.org/bitstreams/64762ebb-27a6-41a7-bed0-43a230009c75/download](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://mountainscholar.org/bitstreams/64762ebb-27a6-41a7-bed0-43a230009c75/download%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269349590%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw37DSVnpaoE3SW58ihSVmCo&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269421057&usg=AOvVaw2ZkpagywhyH26Fc_KdEnaM) 69. The plasticity of well-being: A training-based framework for the cultivation of human flourishing | PNAS, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2014859117](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2014859117%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269350186%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw2TC66o17X6MeEUXebAHqIw&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269421143&usg=AOvVaw1aE7RDZ86loeq5kdu5T25z) 70. A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6081743/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6081743/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269350781%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1wtH-L8FFu_NxCxEA9afGw&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269421212&usg=AOvVaw0L4lr8pG_oIGxVBKqruae0) 71. Considerations for conducting cross-cultural survey research - Kantar, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.kantar.com/inspiration/research-services/considerations-for-conducting-cross-cultural-survey-research-pf](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.kantar.com/inspiration/research-services/considerations-for-conducting-cross-cultural-survey-research-pf%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269351509%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw3RY6rKVJKf_mUymyijnAyg&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269421281&usg=AOvVaw1M48JZie8fCi4MsbdlrScN) 72. Methodologies for Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Subjective Experiences: Addressing Response Biases | Request PDF - ResearchGate, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353588783_Methodologies_for_Cross-Cultural_Comparisons_of_Subjective_Experiences_Addressing_Response_Biases](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/353588783_Methodologies_for_Cross-Cultural_Comparisons_of_Subjective_Experiences_Addressing_Response_Biases%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269352420%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0nlZRYR9W_wpOPwDN2LXNk&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269421379&usg=AOvVaw1EHMouZHMdyk70WCcL96bI) 73. Contemplative Practices Behavior Is Positively Associated with Well-Being in Three Global Multi-Regional Stanford WELL for Life Cohorts, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9603492/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9603492/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269353263%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw30qQaCSKPAVQvyFHgwDU_n&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269421470&usg=AOvVaw0iBWHQXXY8pOv0iYzfLW-K) 74. Cross-Cultural Differences in Emotional Regulation Strategies in United States, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/381100230_Cross-Cultural_Differences_in_Emotional_Regulation_Strategies_in_United_States](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/381100230_Cross-Cultural_Differences_in_Emotional_Regulation_Strategies_in_United_States%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269354049%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw0Mv9GgB5A6u8xAnJQ05L3J&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269421553&usg=AOvVaw1ETzMfvgDqE1eLBwFMz_k6) 75. Basic Guide to Cross-Cultural Research | Human Relations Area Files, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://hraf.yale.edu/cross-cultural-research/basic-guide-to-cross-cultural-research/](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://hraf.yale.edu/cross-cultural-research/basic-guide-to-cross-cultural-research/%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269354644%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw021S3dptM1_SUlL7WfEYFt&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269421640&usg=AOvVaw0VLNqS-izi1LXmwVBpacWV) 76. 1 Navigating cross-cultural research: methodological and ethical considerations 2 - MPG.PuRe, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_3241724_3/component/file_3241725/content](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_3241724_3/component/file_3241725/content%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269355246%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw15drlrBMeXCdtLSGnTd24R&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269421730&usg=AOvVaw11cGlaX2NkmpbYBwpOF7MZ) 77. Editorial: The varieties of contemplative experiences and practices - Frontiers, accessed April 25, 2025, [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1232999/full](https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.google.com/url?q%3Dhttps://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1232999/full%26amp;sa%3DD%26amp;source%3Deditors%26amp;ust%3D1745638269355910%26amp;usg%3DAOvVaw1tQFtAbWRhLml1XLRvUbBe&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1745638269421811&usg=AOvVaw1x18oaAWaun5toey3drafB)