You're right, that's a crucial distinction. The sources provide several examples where **major, established theories face contradictions from a range of less mainstream or alternative viewpoints**. While no single "minor" theory might offer a complete replacement, the accumulation of these contradictions can collectively suggest weaknesses or limitations in the dominant paradigm. Here are some examples from the sources that fit this pattern: - **Lambda Cold Dark Matter (ΛCDM)** faces contradictions from multiple alternative theories regarding the nature of dark matter and dark energy. - **Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND)** explains galaxy rotation curves without invoking dark matter. While successful at galactic scales, it struggles at larger scales. - Various **Modified Gravity (MG) theories** aim to explain cosmic acceleration without dark energy by altering the laws of gravity. These include f(R) theories, scalar-tensor theories, and others. - **Emergent Gravity** proposes that gravity arises from more fundamental degrees of freedom, potentially eliminating the need for dark matter and dark energy as fundamental entities. - The **backreaction hypothesis** suggests that the observed cosmic acceleration might be an artifact of applying a perfectly homogeneous model (FLRW) to an inhomogeneous universe, making dark energy an illusion. - These alternatives, while not fully replacing ΛCDM's overall fit, collectively challenge its reliance on the unexplained dark sector and suggest that the "dark universe" might be a consequence of a flawed framework. - The **Standard Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics (e.g., Copenhagen)** with wave function collapse is contradicted by a multitude of alternative interpretations. - The **Many-Worlds Interpretation (MWI)** posits that all quantum outcomes are realized in parallel universes, eliminating collapse. - **Bohmian Mechanics** describes particles with definite trajectories guided by a wave function, also avoiding collapse. - **Objective Collapse Models (OCM)** propose modifications to quantum dynamics that cause physical collapse. - **Relational Quantum Mechanics (RQM)** states that quantum states are observer-relative. - **QBism** interprets quantum states as representing an observer's beliefs. - **Consistent Histories (CH)** provides a framework for assigning probabilities to consistent sequences of events without collapse. - These diverse interpretations, while agreeing on the mathematical predictions of quantum mechanics, offer fundamentally different ontological pictures, highlighting the interpretational challenges and suggesting that the standard "collapse" postulate might be a problematic addition to the core formalism. - The **particle interpretation of quantum mechanics** faces challenges from **information-theoretic interpretations**. - The idea of "**it from bit**" suggests that information is more fundamental than particles or fields, with physical reality arising from information processes. - This perspective implies a shift in fundamental ontology, suggesting that the focus on particles as primary might be a limited view. - The assumption of a **smooth, classical spacetime** in General Relativity at all scales is contradicted by approaches exploring quantum gravity. - The **holographic principle**, rooted in black hole thermodynamics and string theory, suggests that information about a volume of space is encoded on a lower-dimensional boundary. - **Loop Quantum Gravity (LQG)** proposes a granular structure of spacetime at the Planck scale, contradicting the smooth continuum of classical GR. - **Causal Set Theory** posits that spacetime is fundamentally discrete. - These alternatives suggest that the classical view of spacetime, while effective at macroscopic scales, might be an emergent phenomenon or an approximation of a deeper, quantum reality. As your query suggests, the existence of multiple, distinct theoretical frameworks that each contradict a major theory on specific points can collectively serve as a form of "substitute falsification" [your wording]. While none of these minor theories might yet provide a complete and universally accepted replacement for the dominant paradigm, their persistent presence and the specific issues they address highlight potential flaws, incomplete understanding, or questionable assumptions within the major theories. This situation can create "systemic inertia" where the dominant framework is reinforced despite these accumulating contradictions. The sources argue that maintaining critical awareness of foundational assumptions and exploring these alternative formalisms is crucial for progress in fundamental physics.